THE TERMS or WORDS of PUBLIC SPEAKING
Here is a glossary of words used in relation to public speaking.
A
abstract
A summary of a
magazine or journal article, written by someone other than the original author.
abstract words
Words that refer
to ideas or concepts.
acceptance speech
A speech that
gives thanks for a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.
acronym
A word composed
of the initial letters or parts of a series of words.
active listening
Giving undivided
attention to a speaker in a genuine effort to understand the speaker's point of
view.
ad hominem fallacy
An attempt to
discredit a position by attacking the people who favor it.
adrenaline
A hormone
released into the bloodstream in response to physical or mental stress.
after-dinner speech
A brief, often
humorous, ceremonial speech, presented after a meal, that offers a message
without asking for radical changes in attitude or action.
agenda-setting function
The work of
informative speaking in raising topics to attention and creating a sense of
their importance.
agreement
The third stage
in the persuasive process requires that listeners not only accept the speaker’s
recommendations but remember their reasons for doing so.
alliteration
Repetition of
the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words.
amplification
The art of
developing ideas by finding ways to restate them in a speech.
analogical persuasion
Creating a
strategic perspective on a subject by relating it to something about which the
audience has strong positive or negative feelings.
analogical reasoning
Reasoning in
which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the
first case is also true for the second.
analogous color scheme
Colors adjacent
on the color wheel; used in a presentation aid to suggest both differences and
close relationships among the components represented.
analogy
A connection
established between two otherwise dissimilar ideas or things.
animation
The way objects
enter and/or exit a PowerPoint slide.
antithesis
A language
technique that combines opposing elements in the same sentence or adjoining
sentences.
appreciative listening
Listening for
pleasure or enjoyment.
appreciative phase
Phase of
listening in which we enjoy the beauty of messages, responding to such factors
as the simplicity, balance, and proportion of speeches and the eloquence of
their language.
arguments
Arrangements of
proofs designed to answer key questions that arise in persuasive designs.
articulation
The physical
production of particular speech sounds.
assimilation
The tendency of
listeners to interpret the positions of a speaker with whom they agree as
closer to their own views than they actually are.
atlas
A book of maps.
attitude
A frame of mind
in favor of or opposed to a person, policy, belief, institution, topic, etc.
audience-centeredness
Keeping the
audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation.
audience demographics
Observable
characteristics of listeners, including age, gender, educational level, group affiliations,
and sociocultural backgrounds, that the speaker considers when adapting to an
audience.
audience dynamics
The motivations,
attitudes, beliefs, and values that influence the behavior of listeners.
autocratic leader
A leader who
makes decisions without consultation, issues orders or gives direction, and
controls the members of the group through the use of rewards or punishments.
award presentation
A speech of
tribute that recognizes achievements of the award recipient, explains the
nature of the award, and describes why the recipient qualifies for the award.
awareness
This first stage
in the persuasive process includes knowing about a problem, paying attention to
it, and understanding how it affects our lives.
[
B
balance
Achieving a
balance among the major parts of a presentation.
bandwagon
A fallacy which
assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or
desirable.
bar graph
A graph that uses
vertical or horizontal bars to show comparisons among two or more items.
begging the question
Assuming that an
argument has been proved without actually presenting the evidence.
beliefs
Ideas we express
about subjects that may explain our attitudes towards them.
bibliography
A list of all
the sources used in preparing a speech.
Bill of Rights
The first ten
amendments to the United States Constitution.
biographical aid
A reference work
that provides information about people.
body
The middle part
of a speech, used to develop the main ideas.
body language
Communication
achieved using facial expressions, eye contact, movements, and gestures.
bookmark
A feature in a
Web browser that stores links to Web sites so they can be easily revisited.
boomerang effect
An audience’s
hostile reaction to a speech advocating too much or too radical change.
brainstorming
A method of
generating ideas by free association of words and thoughts.
brief example
A specific
instance illustrating a more general idea.
briefing
A short, informative
presentation given in an organizational setting.
bulleted list
A presentation
aid that highlights themes by presenting them in a list of brief statements.
burden of proof
The obligation
facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is
necessary.
C
call number
A number used in
libraries to classify books and periodicals and to indicate where they can be
found on the shelves.
call the question
A motion that
proposes to end the discussion on a motion and to bring it to a vote.
catalogue
A listing of all
the books, periodicals, and other resources owned by a library.
categorical design
The use of
natural or traditional divisions within a subject as a way of structuring an
informative speech.
causal order
A method of
speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship.
causal reasoning
Reasoning that
seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects.
causation design
A pattern for an
informative speech that shows how one condition generates, or is generated by,
another.
central idea
A one-sentence
statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech.
ceremonial speaking
(ceremonial
speech) Speaking that celebrates special occasions. Common forms are speeches
of tribute, inspiration, eulogies, toasts, introduction, making and accepting
awards, and the after-dinner speech. Their deeper function is to share
identities and reinforce values that unite people into communities.
channel
The means by
which a message is communicated.
chart
A visual aid
that summarizes a large block of information, usually in list form.
chronological design
Pattern of
speech organization that follows a sequence of important events in relating the
history of a subject or predicting its future.
chronological order
A method of
speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern.
claims
Conclusions that
go beyond factual statements to make judgments about their subjects.
cliché
A trite or
overused expression.
clip art
Pictures and
symbols that represent common objects, processes, and ideas.
clutter
Discourse that
takes many more words than are necessary to express an idea.
co-active approach
A way of
approaching reluctant audiences in which the speaker attempts to establish
goodwill, emphasizes shared values, and sets modest goals for persuasion.
cognitive restructuring
The process of
replacing negative thoughts with positive, constructive ones.
collaborative problem solving
In group
communication, an approach that gathers participants from separate areas of the
public or private sectors for their input on a problem.
commemorative speech
A speech that
pays tribute to a person, a group of people, an institution, or an idea.
communication apprehension
Anxiety or fear
experienced before and during public speaking.
communication environment
The setting in
which communication occurs, including both physical and psychological factors.
comparative advantages order
A method of organizing
persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution
to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions.
comparative design
A pattern for an
informative speech that relates an unfamiliar subject to something the audience
already knows or understands.
comparison
A statement of
the similarities among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.
comparison and contrast
An informative
speech design that points out similarities and differences between subjects or
ideas.
competence
The speaker’s
appearance of being informed, intelligent, and well prepared.
complementary color scheme
Colors opposite
one another on the color wheel; used in a presentation aid to suggest tension
and opposition among various elements.
comprehensive phase
Phase of
listening in which we focus on, understand, and interpret spoken messages.
comprehensive listening
Listening to
understand the message of a speaker.
computer-assisted presentation
The use of
commercial presentation software to join audio, visual, text, graphic, and
animated components.
concept
A belief,
theory, idea, notion, principle, or the like.
concrete words
Words that refer
to tangible objects.
confusion of fact and opinion
A misuse of
evidence in persuasive speaking in which personal opinions are offered as
though they were objective facts, or facts are dismissed as though they were
mere opinion.
connective
A word or phrase
that connects the ideas of a speech and indicates the relationship between
them.
connotative meaning
The emotional, subjective,
personal meaning that certain words can evoke in listeners.
consensus
A group decision
that is acceptable to all members of the group.
constructive listening
The role of the
listener in the creation of meaning. Involves discovering the speaker’s
intention, tracing out the implications and consequences of the message, and
applying the message to one’s life.
contrast
A statement of
the differences among two or more people, events, ideas, etc.
contrast effect
A tendency by
listeners to distort the positions of a speaker with whom they disagree and to
interpret those positions as even more distant from their own opinions than
they actually are.
conversational quality
Presenting a
speech so it sounds spontaneous no matter how many times it has been rehearsed.
coordination
The requirement
that statements equal in importance be placed on the same level in an outline.
creating common ground
A technique in
which a speaker connects himself or herself with the values, attitudes, or
experiences of the audience.
credibility
The audience's
perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic.
crescendo ending
A conclusion in
which the speech builds to a zenith of power and intensity.
criteria
Standards on
which a judgment or decision can be based.
critical listening
The careful
analysis and evaluation of message content.
critical thinking
Focused,
organized thinking about such things as the logical relationships among ideas,
the soundness of evidence, and the differences between fact and opinion.
critique
An evaluation of
a speech.
cultural gridlock
Occurs when the
cultural differences in a group are so profound that the varying agendas,
priorities, customs, and procedures create tensions that block constructive
discussion.
cultural sensitivity
The respectful,
appreciative awareness of the diversity within an audience.
culturetypes
Terms that
express the values and goals of a group’s culture.
D
debate
The clash of opposing
ideas, evaluations and policy proposals on a subject of concern.
decoding process
The process by
which the listener determines the meaning of the speaker’s message and decides
the speaker’s intent.
deductive reasoning
A form of
thinking that begins with a generally accepted truth, connects an issue with
that truth, and draws a conclusion based on the connection.
definition
A translation of
an unfamiliar word into understandable terms.
deliberation
Allowing all
sides to express their opinions before a decision is made.
delivery cues
Directions in a
speaking outline to help a speaker remember how she or he wants to deliver key
parts of the speech.
demagogues
Political
speakers who try to inflame feelings without regard to the accuracy or adequacy
of their claims in order to promote their own agendas.
demographic audience analysis
Audience
analysis that focuses on demographic factors such as age, gender, religious
orientation, group membership, and racial, ethnic, or cultural background.
denotative meaning
The dictionary
definition or objective meaning of a word.
derived credibility
The credibility
of a speaker produced by everything she or he says and does during the speech.
description
A statement that
depicts a person, event, idea, and the like with clarity and vividness.
designated leader
A person who is
elected or appointed as leader when the group is formed.
dialect
A speech pattern
associated with an area of the country or with a cultural or ethnic background.
dialogue group
A group
assembled to explore the underlying assumptions of a problem but not
necessarily to solve it.
direct quotation
Repeating the
exact words of another to support a point.
discriminative phase
Phase of
listening in which we detect the vital sounds of spoken communication.
disinformation
Communication
that offers what appears to be information, but that actually deceives
listeners and impedes their understanding.
dissolve ending
A conclusion
that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final
statement.
dyad
A group of two
people.
dynamism
The impact made
on listeners when they perceive a speaker as confident, decisive, and
enthusiastic.
E
egocentrism
Holding the view
that one’s own experiences and thoughts are the norm.
either-or
A fallacy that
forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two
alternatives exist.
electronic brainstorming
A group
technique in which participants generate ideas in computer chat groups or by
email.
emergent leader
A group member
who emerges as a leader during the group's deliberations.
empathic phase
Phase of
listening in which we suspend judgment, allow speakers to be heard, and try to
see things from their points of view.
emphatic listening
Listening to
provide emotional support for a speaker.
empirical
A form of
thinking that emphasizes the close inspection of reality.
enactment
The fourth stage
of the persuasive process in which listeners take appropriate action as the
result of their agreement.
encoding process
The process by
which the speaker combines words, tones, and gestures to convey thought and
feelings to the audience.
enduring metaphors
Metaphors of
unusual power and popularity that are based on experience that lasts across
time and that crosses many cultural boundaries.
enunciation
The manner in
which individual words are articulated and pronounced in context.
ethical decisions
Sound ethical
decisions involve weighing a potential course of action against a set of ethical
standards or guidelines.
ethics
The branch of
philosophy that deals with issues of right and wrong in human affairs.
ethnocentrism
The belief that
one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures.
ethos
The name used by
Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility.
eulogy
A speech of
tribute presented upon a person’s death.
event
Anything that
happens or is regarded as happening.
evidence
Supporting
materials used to prove or disprove something.
example
A specific case
used to illustrate or to represent a group of people, ideas, conditions,
experiences, or the like.
expanded conversational style
A presentational
quality that, while more formal than everyday conversation, preserves its
directness and spontaneity.
expert testimony
Testimony from
people who are recognized experts in their fields.
explanations
A combination of
facts and statistics to clarify a topic or process mentioned in a speech.
extemporaneous speech
A carefully
prepared and rehearsed speech that is presented from a brief set of notes.
extemporaneous presentation
(extemporaneous
speaking) A form of presentation in which a speech, although carefully prepared
and practiced, is not written out or memorized.
extended example
A story, narrative,
or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point.
eye contact
Direct visual
contact with the eyes of another person.
[
F
facts and statistics
Items of
information that can be used to illustrate and prove points made by the
speaker. When expressed numerically, such information appears in statistics.
factual example
An illustration
based on something that actually happened or that really exists.
fair use
A provision of
copyright law that permits students and teachers to use portions of copyrighted
materials for educational purposes.
fallacy
An error in
reasoning.
false cause
An error in
causal reasoning in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event
follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. This error is
often known by its Latin name, post hoc, ergo propter hoc, meaning
'after this, therefore because of this.'
faulty analogy
A comparison
drawn between things that are dissimilar in some important way.
feedback
The audience’s
immediate response to a speaker.
figurative analogy
A comparison
made between things that belong to different fields.
figurative language
The use of words
in certain surprising and unusual ways in order to magnify the power of their
meaning.
filtering
Listening to
only part of a message, the part the listener wants to hear.
fixed-alternative questions
Questions that
offer a fixed choice between two or more alternatives.
flawed statistical comparisons
Statistical
reasoning that offers fallacious conclusions by comparing unequal and unlike
situations.
flow chart
A visual method
of representing power and responsibility relationships.
font
A complete set
of type of the same design.
formal outline
The final
outline in a process leading from the first rough ideas for a speech to the
finished product.
frame of reference
The sum of a
person's knowledge, experience, goals, values, and attitudes. No two people can
have exactly the same frame of reference.
free-rein leader
A leader who
leaves members free to decide what, how, and when to act, offering no guidance.
G
gazetteer
A geographical
dictionary.
gender stereotyping
Generalizations
based on oversimplified or outmoded assumptions about gender and gender roles.
general encyclopedia
A comprehensive
reference work that provides information about all branches of human knowledge.
general purpose
The broad goal
of a speech.
generic 'he'
The use of 'he' to
refer to both women and men.
gestures
Motions of a
speaker's hands or arms during a speech.
global plagiarism
Stealing a
speech entirely from a single source and passing it off as one's own.
good form
A primary
principle of structure, based on simplicity, symmetry, and orderliness.
goodwill
The audience's
perception of whether the speaker has the best interests of the audience in
mind.
graph
A visual aid
used to show statistical trends and patterns.
graphics
Visual
representations of information.
great expectation fallacy
The mistaken
idea that major change can be accomplished by a single persuasive effort.
groupthink
Occurs when a
single, uncritical frame of mind dominates group thinking and prevents the
full, objective analysis of specific problems.
H
habitual pitch
The level at
which people speak most frequently.
hasty generalization
An error in
reasoning from specific instances, in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion
on the basis of insufficient evidence.
hearing
The vibration of
sound waves on the eardrums and the firing of electrochemical impulses in the
brain.
hidden agenda
A set of
unstated individual goals that may conflict with the goals of the group as a whole.
hypothetical example
An example that
describes an imaginary or fictitious situation or event.
I
identification
A process in
which speakers seek to create a bond with the audience by emphasizing common
values, goals, and experiences.
ideographs
Words that
convey in a compressed way a group’s basic political faith or system of
beliefs.
imagery
The use of vivid
language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas.
immediacy
A quality of
successful communication achieved when the speaker and audience experience a
sense of closeness.
implied leader
A group member
to whom other members defer because of her or his rank, expertise, or other
quality.
impromptu speech
A speech
delivered with little or no immediate preparation.
inclusive language
Language that
does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race,
religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors.
incremental plagiarism
Failing to give
credit for particular parts of a speech that are borrowed from other people.
inflections
Changes in the
pitch or tone of a speaker's voice.
information cards
Records of facts
and ideas obtained from an article or book used in research.
informative speech
A speech
designed to convey knowledge and understanding.
informative value
A measure of how
much new and important information or understanding a speech conveys to an
audience.
initial credibility
The credibility
of a speaker before she or he starts to speak.
inoculation effect
Preparing an
audience for an opposing argument by answering it before listeners have been
exposed to it.
integrity
The quality of
being ethical, honest, and dependable.
interference
Anything that
impedes the communication of a message. Interference can be external or
internal to listeners.
internal preview
A statement in
the body of the speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to
discuss next.
internal summary
Reminding
listeners of major points already presented in a speech before proceeding to
new ideas.
introduction
The first part
of a speech, intended to gain the audience’s attention and to prepare them for
the rest of the presentation.
invalid analogy
An analogy in
which the two cases being compared are not essentially alike.
inversion
Changing the
normal order of words to make statements memorable and emphatic.
invisible Web
The multitude of
Web databases and other resources that are not indexed by search engines.
[
J
jargon
The specialized
or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group.
K
key-word outline
An outline that
briefly notes a speaker's main points and supporting evidence in rough outline
form.
kinesics
The study of
body motions as a systematic mode of communication.
L
lay testimony
Information that
is derived from the firsthand experience of ordinary citizens.
leadership
The ability to
influence group members so as to help achieve the goals of the group.
likeableness
The quality of
radiating goodness and goodwill and inspiring audience affection in return.
line graph
A graph that
uses one or more lines to show changes in statistics over time or space.
listener
The person who
receives the speaker's message.
listening
Paying close
attention to, and making sense of, what we hear.
literal analogy
A comparison
made between subjects within the same field.
logos
The name used by
Aristotle for the logical appeal of a speaker. The two major elements of logos
are evidence and reasoning.
M
magnification
A speaker’s
selecting and emphasizing certain qualities of a subject to stress the values
they represent.
main motion
A proposal that
would commit a group to some specific action or declaration.
main points
The major points
developed in the body of a speech.
maintenance needs
Communicative
actions necessary to maintain interpersonal relations in a small group.
malapropisms
Language errors
that occur when a word is confused with another word that sounds like it.
manuscript speech
A speech that is
written out word for word and read to the audience.
marking
Adding a gender
reference when none is needed-e.g., "a woman doctor."
master of ceremonies
A person who
coordinates an event or program, sets its mood, introduces participants,
provides transitions, and may also present awards.
maxims
Brief and
particularly apt sayings.
mean
The average
value of a group of numbers.
median
The middle
number in a group of numbers arranged from highest to lowest.
memorized text presentations
Speeches that
are committed to memory and delivered word for word.
mental dialogue with the audience
The mental
give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech.
message
Whatever a
speaker communicates to someone else.
metaphor
An implicit
comparison, not introduced with the word 'like' or 'as,' between two things
that are essentially different yet have something in common.
metasearch engine
A search aid
that sends a researcher's request to several search engines at the same time.
mirror questions
Questions that
repeat part of a previous response to encourage further discussion.
mode
The number that
occurs most frequently in a group of numbers.
model
An object,
usually built to scale, that represents another object in detail.
monotone
A constant pitch
or tone of voice.
Monroe's motivated sequence
A method of
organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of
the motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and
action.
motion
Formal proposal
for group consideration.
motivated sequence design
A persuasive
speech design that proceeds by arousing attention, demonstrating a need,
satisfying the need, visualizing results, and calling for action.
motivation
Internal forces
that impel action and direct human behavior toward specific goals.
mountain graph
A variation of a
line graph in which different colors are used to fill in the areas above and
below the line(s).
move to amend
A parliamentary
move that offers the opportunity to modify a motion presently under discussion.
multimedia presentation
A speech that
uses computer software to combine several kinds of visual and/or audio aids in
the same talk.
multisided presentation
A speech in
which the speaker’s position is compared favorably to other positions.
myth of the mean
The deceptive
use of statistical averages in speeches.
mythos
A form of proof
that connects a subject to the culture and tradition of a group through the use
of narratives.
N
name-calling
The use of
language to defame, demean, or degrade individuals or groups.
narrative
A story used to
illustrate some important truth about a speaker’s topic.
need
The first basic
issue in analyzing a question of policy: Is there a serious problem or need
that requires a change from current policy?
non sequitur fallacy
A deductive
error occurring when conclusions are drawn improperly from the premises that
precede them.
nonverbal communication
Communication
based on a person's use of voice and body, rather than on the use of words.
O
object
Anything that is
visible, tangible, and stable in form.
onomatopoeia
The use of words
that sound like the subjects they signify.
open-ended questions
Questions that
allow respondents to answer however they want.
optimum pitch
The level at
which people can produce their strongest voice with minimal effort and that
allows variation up and down the musical scale.
oral report
A speech
presenting the findings, conclusions, decisions, etc., of a small group.
order
A consistent
pattern used to develop a speech.
P
panel discussion
A structured
conversation on a given topic among several people in front of an audience.
parallel construction
Wording an
outline’s main points in the same way in order to emphasize their importance
and to help the audience remember them.
parallelism
The similar
arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases, or sentences.
paraphrase
To restate or
summarize an author's ideas in one's own words.
parliamentary procedure
A set of formal
rules that establishes an order of business for meetings and encourages the
orderly, fair, and full consideration of proposals during group deliberation.
participative leader
A leader who
seeks input from group members and gives them an active role in
decision-making.
patchwork plagiarism
Stealing ideas
or language from two or three sources and passing them off as one's own.
pathos
The name used by
Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as emotional
appeal.
pause
A momentary
break in the vocal delivery of a speech.
peer testimony
Testimony from
ordinary people with first-hand experience or insight on a topic.
periodical database
A research aid
that catalogues articles from a large number of journals or magazines.
personalize
To present one's
ideas in human terms that relate in some fashion to the experience of the
audience.
personification
A figure of
speech in which nonhuman or abstract subjects are given human qualities.
persuasion
The art of
convincing others to give favorable attention to our point of view.
persuasive speech
A speech
designed to change or reinforce the audience's attitudes, beliefs or actions.
pictographs
On a chart, a
visual image symbolizing the information it represents.
pie graph
A graph that
highlights segments of a circle to show simple distribution patterns.
pitch
The position of
a human voice on the musical scale.
plagiarism
Presenting
another person's language or ideas as one's own.
plan
The second basic
issue in analyzing a question of policy: If there is a problem with current
policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
positive nervousness
Controlled
nervousness that helps energize a speaker for her or his presentation.
post hoc fallacy
A deductive
error in which one event is assumed to be the cause of another simply because
the first preceded the second.
postpone consideration
(move to
postpone consideration) A motion that defers discussion until some specified
time when necessary information will be available.
practicality
The third basic
issue in analyzing a question of policy: Will the speaker's plan solve the
problem? Will it create new and more serious problems?
precision
Using
information that is closely and carefully related to the specific purpose and
context of a speech; particularly important when a topic varies widely in
application.
preliminary bibliography
A list compiled
early in the research process of works that look as if they might contain
helpful information about a speech topic.
preliminary tuning effect
The effect of
previous speeches or other situational factors in predisposing an audience to
respond positively or negatively to a speech.
preparation outline
A detailed
outline developed during the process of speech preparation that includes the
title, specific purpose, central idea, introduction, main points, subpoints,
connectives, conclusion, and bibliography of a speech.
prepersuasive function
The way in which
informative speaking shapes listeners’ perceptions, preparing them for later
persuasive speeches on a topic.
PREP formula
An outlining
technique for an impromptu speech: state a point, give a reason or example, and
restate the point.
presentation
The act of
offering a speech to an audience, integrating the skills of nonverbal
communication, especially body language, with the speech content.
presentation
A PowerPoint
file containing all the slides for a given speech.
presentation aids
Supplemental
materials used to enhance the effectiveness and clarity of a presentation.
prestige testimony
Information
coming from a person who is highly regarded but not necessarily an expert on a
topic.
preview
The part of the
introduction that identifies the main points to be developed in the body of the
speech and presents an overview of the speech to follow.
principle of closure
The need for a
satisfactory end or conclusion to a speech.
principle of proximity
The idea that
things occurring together in time or space should be presented in the order in
which they normally happen.
principle of similarity
The principle
that like things should be grouped together.
probes
Questions that
ask an expert to elaborate on a response.
problem-cause-solution order
A method of
organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies a
problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the
third main point presents a solution to the problem.
problem-solution design
A persuasive
speech pattern in which listeners are first persuaded that they have a problem
and then are shown how to solve it.
problem-solution order
A method of
speech organization in which the first main point deals with the existence of a
problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem.
problem-solving small group
A small group
formed to solve a particular problem.
procedural needs
Routine
'housekeeping' actions necessary for the efficient conduct of business in a
small group.
process
A systematic
series of actions that leads to a specific result or product.
pronunciation
The use of
correct sounds and of proper stress or accent on syllables in saying words.
proof
An
interpretation of evidence that provides a good reason for listeners to agree
with the speaker.
proxemics
The study of how
human beings use space during communication.
Q
qualifiers
Words that
suggest the degree of confidence a speaker has in the conclusion of his or her
argument.
question of fact
A question about
the truth or falsity of an assertion.
question of policy
A question about
whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken.
question of value
A question about
the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action.
quoting out of context
Quoting a
statement in such a way as to distort its meaning by removing the statement
from the words and phrases surrounding it.
R
rate
The speed at
which a person speaks.
reasoning
The process of
drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence.
reasoning from principle
Reasoning that
moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion.
reasoning from specific instances
Reasoning that
moves from particular facts to a general conclusion.
receiver apprehension
Fear of
misinterpreting, inadequately processing and/or not being able to adjust
psychologically to messages sent by others.
recency
Ensuring that
the information in a speech is the latest that can be provided.
red herring fallacy
The use of
irrelevant material to divert attention.
reference work
A work that
synthesizes a large amount of related information for easy access by
researchers.
reflective-thinking method
A five-step
method for directing discussion in a problem-solving small group.
refutative design
A persuasive
speech design in which the speaker tries to raise doubts about, damage, or
destroy an opposing position.
reinforcer
A comment or
action that encourages further communication from someone being interviewed.
reliability
The
trustworthiness of information critical to the credibility of a speech.
reluctant testimony
Highly credible
form of supporting material in which sources of evidence speak against their
apparent self-interest.
reluctant witnesses
Those who offer
reluctant testimony; i.e., they speak against their apparent self-interest.
repetition
Reiteration of
the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or
sentences.
research interview
An interview
conducted to gather information for a speech.
research overview
A listing of the
main sources of information that could be used in a speech and of the major
ideas from each source.
residual message
What a speaker
wants the audience to remember after it has forgotten everything else in a
speech.
responsible knowledge
An understanding
of the major features, issues, experts, latest developments, and local
applications relevant to a topic.
rhetorical questions
Questions that
have a self-evident answer, or that provoke curiosity that the speech then
proceeds to satisfy.
rhythm
The pattern of
sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words.
Robert’s Rules of Order
The
authoritative, traditional "bible" of parliamentary procedure.
S
sans-serif font
A typeface with
straight edges on the letters.
scale questions
Questions that
require responses at fixed intervals along a scale of answers.
search aid
A program used
to find information on the World Wide Web.
search engine
A search aid
that indexes Web pages and checks them for sites that match a researcher's
request.
second
A motion must receive
a "second" before group discussion can proceed. Assures that more
than one member wishes to have the motion considered.
self-awareness inventory
A series of
questions that a speaker can ask to develop an approach to a speech of
introduction.
sequence chart
Visual
illustrations of the different stages of a process.
sequential design
A pattern for an
informative speech that presents the steps involved in the process being
demonstrated.
serif font
A typeface with
rounded edges on the letters.
sexism
Allowing gender
stereotypes to control interactions with members of the opposite sex.
sexist language
The use of
masculine nouns and pronouns when the intended reference is to both sexes, or
the use of derogatory emotional trigger words when referring to women.
signpost
A very brief
statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that focuses
attention on key ideas.
simile
An explicit
comparison, introduced with the word 'like' or 'as,' between things that are
essentially different yet have something in common.
simplicity
A desirable
quality of speech structure. Suggests that a speech have a limited number of
main points and that they be short and direct.
situation
The time and
place in which speech communication occurs.
situational audience analysis
Audience
analysis that focuses on situational factors, such as the size of the audience,
the physical setting for the speech, and the disposition of the audience toward
the topic, the speaker, and the occasion.
skills training
Developing
abilities and attitudes that help speakers control and transform communication
apprehension into a positive factor.
sleeper effect
A delayed
reaction to persuasion.
slide
A single frame
in a PowerPoint presentation.
slippery slope fallacy
The assumption
that once something happens, an inevitable trend is established that will lead
to disastrous results.
small group
A collection of
three to twelve people that assemble for a specific purpose.
social leadership behavior
Occurs when
leaders focus upon building and maintaining positive, productive relationships
among group members.
source cards
Records kept of
the author, title, place and date of publication, and page references for each
research source.
source citation
Parenthetical
reference in a speech outline to sources listed in full under Works Consulted.
spare "brain time"
The difference
between the rate at which most people talk (120 to 150 words a minute) and the
rate at which the brain can process language (400 to 800 words a minute).
spatial design
A pattern for an
informative speech that orders the main points as they occur in physical space.
spatial order
A method of
speech organization in which the main points follow a directional pattern.
speaker
The person who
is presenting an oral message to a listener.
speaking outline
A brief outline
used to jog a speaker's memory during the presentation of a speech.
special encyclopedia
A comprehensive
reference work devoted to a specific subject such as religion, art, law,
science, music, etc.
specific purpose
The speaker’s particular
goal or the response that the speaker wishes to evoke.
speech of acceptance
A ceremonial
speech expressing gratitude for an honor and acknowledging those who made the
accomplishment possible.
speech of demonstration
An informative
speech aimed at showing the audience how to do something or how something
works.
speech of description
An informative
speech that creates word pictures to help the audience understand a subject.
speech of explanation
A speech that is
intended to inform the audience about abstract and complex subjects, such as
concepts or programs.
speech of inspiration
A ceremonial
speech directed at awakening or reawakening an audience to a goal, purpose, or
set of values.
speech of introduction
A ceremonial
speech in which a featured speaker is introduced to the audience.
speech of presentation
A speech that
presents someone a gift, an award, or some other form of public recognition.
speech of tribute
A ceremonial
speech that recognizes the achievements of individuals or groups or commemorates
special events.
speech to gain immediate action
A persuasive
speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action
in support of a given policy.
speech to gain passive agreement
A persuasive
speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given
policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support
of the policy.
sponsoring organization
An organization
that, in the absence of a clearly identified author, is responsible for the
content of a document on the World Wide Web.
stage fright
Anxiety over the
prospect of giving a speech in front of an audience.
statistics
Numerical data.
stereotypes
Generalized
pictures of a race, gender, or group that supposedly represent its essential
characteristics.
stereotyping
Creating an
oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that
all members of the group are alike.
stock issues design
A persuasive
speech pattern that attempts to answer the major general questions a reasonable
person would ask before agreeing to a change in policies or procedures.
stories
Accounts of
actions or incidents that demonstrate points the speaker is making. See also
narrative.
strategic organization
Putting a speech
together in a particular way to achieve a particular result with a particular
audience.
straw man fallacy
Understating,
distorting, or otherwise misrepresenting the position of opponents for the sake
of refutation.
subordination
The requirement
that material in an outline descend in importance from main points to subpoints
to sub-subpoints to sub-sub-subpoints.
subpoint
The major
division within a speech’s main points.
substance
A quality
possessed by a speech when it has an important message, a careful plan of
development, and adequate facts, examples, and testimony.
sub-subpoints
Divisions of
subpoints within a speech.
summary statement
The speaker’s
reinterpretation of the speech’s main idea at the end of a presentation.
supporting materials
The materials
used to support a speaker's ideas. The three major kinds of supporting
materials are examples, statistics, and testimony.
symbolic racism
An indirect form
of racism that employs code words and subtle, unspoken contrast to suggest that
one race is superior to another.
symposium
A public
presentation in which several people present prepared speeches on different
aspects of the same topic.
T
table the motion
(move to table
the motion) Suspends indefinitely the discussion of a motion.
target audience
The portion of
the whole audience that the speaker most wants to persuade.
task leadership behavior
A leadership
emphasis that directs the attention and activity of a group towards a specified
goal.
task needs
Substantive
actions necessary to help a small group complete its assigned task.
terminal credibility
The credibility
of a speaker at the end of the speech.
testimonial
Lay testimony
used to endorse a person, practice, or institution.
testimony
Citing the observations,
opinions, or conclusions of other people or institutions to clarify, support,
and strengthen a presentation.
textual graphics
Visual
presentation of key words in a speech using a chalkboard, poster board, flip
chart, transparency, slide, or handout.
thesaurus
A book of
synonyms.
thesis statement
The speech’s
central idea.
thoroughness
Providing
complete and accurate information about a topic.
toast
A short speech
of tribute, usually offered at celebration dinners or meetings.
topic
The subject of a
speech.
topical order
A method of
speech organization in which the main points divide the topic into logical and
consistent subtopics.
topic area inventory chart
A means of
determining possible speech topics by listing topics you find of interest and
subjects your audience finds of interest, and matching them.
transaction
The process by
which we discover who we are as we communicate with others.
transactional leadership
A leadership
style based on power relationships that relies on reward and punishment to
achieve its ends.
transformation
The dynamic,
positive effect of successful, ethical communication on the identities of the
speaker and listener and on public knowledge.
transformational leadership
A leadership
style based on mutual respect and stewardship rather than on control.
transition(s)
A word, phrase
or other connecting element that indicates when a speaker has finished one
thought and is moving on to another.
transition(s)
The way
PowerPoint slides enter and/or exit the screen.
transparency
A visual aid
drawn, written, or printed on a sheet of clear acetate and shown with an
overhead projector.
U
universal human values
Eight values
identified by the Institute for Global Ethics that transcend cultural
differences: love, truthfulness, fairness, freedom, unity, tolerance,
responsibility, and respect for life.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
The string of
letters or numbers that identify a website's address.
V
values
Underlying
principles or standards of desirable or ideal behavior that should justify our
beliefs and attitudes.
verifier
A statement by
an interviewer confirming the meaning of what has just been said by the person
being interviewed.
verbatim
Using the exact
words of a source.
virtual library
A search aid
that combines Internet technology with traditional library methods of
cataloguing and assessing data.
visual framework
The pattern of
symbolization and indentation in a speech outline that shows the relationships
among the speaker's ideas.
visualization
The process of
systematically picturing oneself succeeding as a speaker and practicing a
speech with that image in mind.
vocalized pause
A pause that
occurs when a speaker fills the silence between words with vocalizations such
as 'uh,' 'er,' and 'um.'
vocal distractions
Filler words,
such as er, um, and you know, used in the place of a pause.
vocal variety
Changes in a
speaker's rate, pitch, and volume that give the voice variety and
expressiveness.
volume
The loudness or
softness of the speaker's voice.
W
working outline
A tentative plan
showing the pattern of a speech’s major parts, their relative importance, and
the way they fit together.
works cited
A form of
bibliography provided at the end of a formal outline that lists just those
sources of supporting material actually used in the speech.
works consulted
A form of
bibliography provided at the end of a formal outline that lists all sources of
research considered in the preparation of the speech.
Y
yearbook
A reference work
published annually that contains information about the previous year.
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